The Rights of Man

Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man (1791) is one of the 18th-century’s most influential political treatises. It offers a spirited defense of the ongoing French Revolution and calls for dramatic reforms in Britain. Paine wrote Rights of Man as a direct response to Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), a conservative critique that professes skepticism and even horror at the course of events in France since the Revolution began in 1789. Rights of Man appeared in two parts. The first part was printed in March 1791, but the second part was delayed until February 1792 due to government persecution. 

The clash of ideas and interests associated with the Burke-Paine debate was more intense in Britain than anywhere else. Whereas Burke cites tradition and the sanctity of the British constitution in support of the prevailing social hierarchy, Paine emphasizes equality and natural rights as arguments against monarchical and aristocratic privilege. Paine was already known for advancing egalitarian ideas in Common Sense (1776), in which he denounced monarchy and urged Americans to declare independence from the British Empire. By the time he wrote Rights of Man, therefore, Paine was well established as a radical polemicist and one of the world’s foremost advocates for liberty. 

This guide uses the Dover Thrift paperback edition.

Summary

In Rights of Man, Part 1, Paine defends the French Revolution against Burke’s criticisms. In response to Burke’s characterization of French revolutionaries as a mindless and bloodthirsty mob, Paine describes the Parisians who stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789, as courageous actors in a contest between liberty and despotism. Paine examines the philosophical ideas and events that led to the French Revolution. He acknowledges the impact of French support for the American Revolution before concentrating on the events of 1787-1789 in France, from the calling of the Assembly of the Notables to the storming of the Bastille. Throughout, Paine seeks to counter Burke’s depiction of the French Revolution as unjustified and indiscriminate violence.

Paine also establishes the doctrine of “natural rights” as the proper foundation for all governments. He challenges Burke’s assertion that the Parliament of 1688, which orchestrated the Glorious Revolution, established a permanent constitution for England and bound posterity to its principles forever. Paine argues that no generation has authority over its descendants and that no such constitution exists in Britain. In the same way that generations are independent of one another, individuals enjoy the same freedom. In advocating for natural rights and fundamental equality, Paine lays the foundation for his broader discussion of topics such as rights, sovereignty, and the legitimacy of the American and French Revolutions.           

In Part 2, Paine links the forms of government with the conditions of the people. He begins with a brief celebration of the American Revolution as a harbinger of a new era, from which it is reasonable to expect both peace and prosperity. He argues that human beings are naturally sociable and thus driven to conflict or misery primarily by the operation of their governments. He describes the old hereditary governments as originating in conquest and plunder, contrasting them with the representative system that characterizes a republic. He asserts that a republic is the only legitimate form of government and argues that only the sovereign people can establish a constitution. Paine denounces the British government’s endless cycle of wars, debts, and taxes, depicting the system as corrupt.  

Paine then unites all strands of his argument by presenting a proposal for the practical implementation of the principles of the American and French Revolutions. He claims that a reformation of the British government, via an adoption of the principles espoused in America and France, would result in universal peace and prosperity. He calculates the probable savings that the British people would enjoy by abolishing the hereditary parts of their government. Significantly, he then explains how these savings could be used to improve the lives of all Britons, except those who hitherto enriched themselves on government largesse. He proposes direct relief to the poor and aged, a national system of public education, financial support for married couples and newborn children, and other social initiatives. With reduced armaments and reformed governments, Paine also suggests an alliance between America, France, and Britain would help preserve global peace and allow revolutionary principles to spread across the world.