42 pages • 1 hour read
The Problems of Philosophy
A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Chapters 13-15Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 13 Summary: “Knowledge, Error, and Probable Opinion”
Russell summarizes his ideas about types of knowledge and how they can be understood as either true or false. He asks a foundational question: “Can we ever know anything at all or do we merely sometimes by good luck believe what is true?” (80). Russell first defines knowledge as a type of true belief that is self-evident. He reminds readers that there are different types of knowledge, each with their own challenges. Knowledge by judgment relies on personal intuitive reasoning and is, therefore, more prone to error than knowledge of acquaintance, which relies on perception across multiple instances.
Knowledge can be determined to be true when it is self-evident, but knowledge is only self-evident to an individual. People have subjective experiences of the world, and they build knowledge based upon their unique sets of sense data. Universals, on the other hand, do not display this same private nature. They are found by many different people, revealing their unique brand of self-evidence. While self-evidence through connection guarantees truth, humans can never be fully certain of this type of knowledge. This is because people habitually conflate judgment and perception.
Error occurs when a belief does not align with facts. For knowledge to be true, it must have a direct correlation to fact. Probable opinion is a more reliable form of intuitive knowledge because it acknowledges the possibility of error. Russell asserts that many of the concepts that people believe to be true in their day-to-day lives are probable opinions. This type of knowledge is hierarchical. The more evidence to support an opinion, the more probable it becomes.
Chapter 14 Summary: “The Limits of Philosophical Knowledge”
Adhering to his logical approach, Russell criticizes metaphysical arguments in epistemology. Many philosophers seek to justify and prove priori knowledge to advance specific theological principles: “Most philosophers […] profess to be able to prove, by a priori metaphysical reasoning, such things as the fundamental dogmas of religion, the essential rationality of the universe, the illusoriness of matter, the unreality of all evil, and so on” (87).
Russell argues that this philosophical work is fruitless. He unpacks the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who developed a theory of the “absolute idea,” which suggests that all reality is part of a singular whole in which all contradictions are synthesized. Russell admits that this idea is appealing, but he argues that it is built upon confused arguments and numerous assumptions.
Hegel’s argument is built upon the nature of the physical object; Russell reminds the reader that this can never be truly known because humans experience the world subjectively. Therefore, any theory by Hegel—a human with his own subjective experience—about a larger collective reality is based on an assumption about something that he is unable to access. Russell explains that this same limitation is what restricts philosophy from ever uncovering the nature of reality.
Russell calls for a philosophy that is closely related to the scientific method. The only difference between philosophy and science is that the former applies criticism, while science maintains a strict adherence to observation and data. Philosophers have a responsibility to approach ideas as skeptics.
Chapter 15 Summary: “The Value of Philosophy”
Many people question the validity or importance of philosophy. Russell explains that this is due partly to the assumption that the value of philosophy lies within its utility. However, philosophy has a value that moves beyond what is useful in the everyday experiences of the average person: It involves “a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions, prejudices and beliefs” (95).
Unlike science, philosophy cannot immediately produce the fruits of its labor. Philosophy is elusive and indefinite. It cannot answer the spiritual questions that most occupy humans’ thoughts, such as the meaning of life or whether good and evil exist. Despite its inability to answer these questions, philosophy continues to pursue them and all questions about the nature of existence. Russell argues that, by doing so, philosophy reminds people that these questions are important and maintains their focus on the aspects of life that truly matter.
Chapters 13-15 Analysis
As he has done throughout the text, Russell emphasizes how his philosophical approach differs from his colleagues. While many philosophers devoted their attention to proving priori knowledge of various religious principles, Russell is concerned with establishing truth and falsifiability of knowledge itself. Russell’s reference to the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in the final section draws a distinct line between his own approach to philosophy and the approaches of others like Hegel who rely on extremely complex dialectical methods. Hegel was known for his convoluted style, which has allowed his work to be interpreted in myriad ways. Russell insists that this confusion conceals a failure in logic. His own writing style, which is straightforward and uses accessible examples to illustrate ideas, stands in a stark contrast to the metaphysical writing that precedes him.
Russell proposes that Hegel and other philosophers who seek sweeping assumptions about the role of humans in the larger reality fail to see the contradictions in their own logic or recognize how their own minds create limitations. He provides a simple logical explanation for this limitation: All humans have a subjective experience of the world. Philosophers like Hegel who make judgments about the nature of reality fail to apply introspection to how their own limitations of subjective experience impact their ability to develop theories about external knowledge. While he has presented himself as an authoritative figure throughout the text, this subverts the idea that a philosopher can be completely authoritative. His exposure of the humanity of the philosopher, who is bound by The Nature and Limits of Human Knowledge, positions the text as an introduction for the layman and philosopher alike.
This does not mean that the pursuit of philosophy or questions about reality are unimportant. Russell finalizes his view about The Value of Philosophy when he explains that the work of philosophy is to ask questions with the full understanding that they will never be answered. In doing so, philosophy has value by maintaining focus on the complexities of life and existence and challenging preconceived ideas. Philosophy helps people unpack their subjective experiences that manifest in prejudice. Russell argues that pursuing philosophical questions, even while knowing that they will not be answered, is the greatest good that humans can pursue.
Unlock all 42 pages of this Study GuidePlus, gain access to 8,800+ more expert-written Study Guides.
Including features:
Related Titles
By Bertrand Russell
