The Communist Manifesto

The Communist Manifesto is a political pamphlet written by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. First written in German, the Manifesto was initially published in London in 1848. Marx was the primary author, while Engels edited the text and assisted Marx financially. They wanted to present a working set of guidelines and principles for their European socialist allies and to offer a text that communists all over the world could use to support their cause. Some of its key considerations include Economics as the Source of Class Struggle, Predetermination and Free Will, and The Pitfalls of Capitalism.

This study guide refers to the Harriman Economic Classics edition of the text.

Summary

In the mid-1800s, European societies were trying to replace aristocratic, authoritarian governments with more democratic institutions. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries introduced incredible advances in production, transportation, and communication, but these advancements also created terrible working conditions for the working class. Men, women, and children worked long hours in dangerous conditions for little reward before the establishment of labor rights and protections for workers.

In response, socialist movements pushed back against exploitation by the new capitalist class, the bourgeoisie. One organization of workers, the Communist League, commissioned Marx and Engels to write The Communist Manifesto, originally titled Manifesto of the Communist Party. Unlike other political pamphlets circulating at the time, The Communist Manifesto sought to contextualize the struggle of the 19th century working class within the history of human civilization.

The Manifesto is ambitious: It suggests a practical plan for the liberation of the working class as well as a new way of studying and understanding the progress of history. Class struggle, the authors argue, is the key to understanding how all human societies have operated. A stronger minority has always oppressed a weaker minority, but soon the working class (the proletariat) will defeat the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) via violent revolution, erasing classes and ending the struggle forever.

Part 1, “Bourgeois and Proletarians,” prescribes a total overhaul of society. The longest and most robust section of the Manifesto, it introduces Marx’s theory of the progressive nature of history and delves into the relationship between the property-owning capitalist class, identified as the bourgeoisie, and the downtrodden working class, identified as the proletariat.

Part 2, “Proletarians and Communists,” defends communism against various common criticisms, including the suggestion that communism enables laziness, destroys individuality and freedom, and is detrimental on a social level (i.e., to women and the family).

Part 3, “Socialist and Communist Literature,” is the section most rooted in the political situation of Marx and Engels’s time. It examines rival socialist or communist movements of the day and articulates why they are less desirable than Marxism.

Part 4, “Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties,” acts as a conclusion, reiterating the text’s main themes and identifying Germany as the likely setting for the imminent proletarian revolution.

Marx’s prose is intended to inspire anger and action. Influenced by classical rhetoricians like the Roman orator Cicero, his style is persuasive and aggressive; Marx rarely passes up the opportunity to insert a pointed jab. Beyond its rhetorical sharpness, the Manifesto is famed for its colorful, fantastical language; references to “spectres” and “sorcerers” contrast with Marx’s dense and difficult concepts.

Despite the specific historic context in which it was published, the Manifesto has lasting appeal. One of the most widely circulated texts of all time, the Manifesto has had an unprecedented impact on social and political theory and fields as wide-ranging as literary studies, education, and the hard sciences. Though written in the 1840s, when society was still newly industrialized, it raises questions that are still relevant today.