Rhetoric

Aristotle’s Rhetoric is a comprehensive treatise on the art of persuasive speech that dates back to the fourth century in Ancient Greece. Aristotle was a tremendously influential philosopher whose work had a foundational influence on Western philosophy, politics, logic, and science. He developed Rhetoric over several decades, spanning his time at Plato’s Academy (367-347 BCE) and his time teaching at the Lyceum (335-322 BCE).

Aristotle did not intend for this work to be widely published; rather, it was a collection of works that either Aristotle or a subsequent editor combined. His other notable works include Metaphysics, Politics, Poetics, and On the Soul, among several others.

This study guide cites the 1932 version of The Rhetoric of Aristotle translated by Lane Cooper and published by Appleton-Century-Crofts. Common Greek technical terms are provided in italics alongside a suggested English equivalent; some translations use only the Greek terms.

Summary

Rhetoric is divided into three books. Book 1establishes the general principles, terminologies, and assumptions inform the rest of the work. Aristotle defines rhetoric then describes the three main methods of persuasion: logos (logical reasoning), ethos (character), and pathos (emotion). He further subdivides logos into example and enthymeme, a form of syllogism.

Aristotle then identifies the three styles of oratory: deliberative (political), forensic (legal), and epideictic (ceremonial). With these basic principles established, the author outlines topics that pertain to each of the three styles of oratory, such as the motives of wrong-doing for forensic oratory.

Book 2 is the longest, and it provides a detailed investigation of logos, pathos, and ethos. Beginning with pathos, Aristotle focuses on the emotions that could be useful for public speakers, such as anger. He contends that a thorough understanding of every emotion will help the speaker excite the desired emotion in his listeners.

Regarding ethos, Aristotle describes how age and fortune (as in luck) can affect the characters of men (the speakers and audience are almost always men in the context of ancient Athens). With this knowledge, a speaker can adjust his rhetorical style to appeal most to his target demographic. Furthermore, this understanding allows the speaker to portray his own character in the appropriate way.

Book 2 concludes with logos, the third of Aristotle’s main methods of persuasion. He explores proof through example, concluding that relevant historical events are more useful examples than invented examples like fables. Aristotle also argues that example works best as an illustration of enthymeme rather than as proof in its own right.

He then moves on to enthymeme, which is a brief rhetorical syllogism that usually contains only one premise and conclusion. This is Aristotle’s preferred form of proof since it is logically sound and does not depend on external factors beyond the argument. He lists several topoi, or lines of argument, that can help the speaker to construct an enthymeme; he also lists fallacious enthymemes that lead to faulty conclusions.

The final book with lexis (style or delivery) and taxis (arrangement). Regarding style, Aristotle advises the reader to use natural-sounding language and diction that is simple and elegant, and not so overwrought that it sounds poetic. This discussion also involves some aspects of Greek language that do not translate into English.

Finally, Aristotle discusses his recommended arrangement for speeches, encompassing a proem (introduction), narrative, argument, and epilogue (conclusion). He explains the best use of the various rhetorical tools within this arrangement, depending on the style of oratory. The work ends abruptly with the conclusion of this discussion.