On Human Nature

“The only way forward is to study human nature as part of the natural sciences, in an attempt to integrate the natural sciences with the social sciences and humanities.”

While Wilson is convinced that the scientific approach is necessary, he doesn’t believe it provides all answers. He states that the information provided by the natural sciences needs to be integrated into data provided by the social sciences (cultural anthropology, economics, philosophy, sociology, etc.).

“Biology is the key to human nature, and social scientists cannot afford to ignore its rapidly tightening principles.”

The question of human nature up to this point has been the subject of the humanities and social sciences. Because of recent advancement in the natural sciences, sociology needs to take its cue from those doing empirical research on the biological makeup of humans (which determines human identity and action to a far greater degree than previously realized).

“Sociobiologists consider man as though seen through the front end of a telescope, at a greater than usual distance and temporarily diminished in size, in order to view him simultaneously with an array of other social experiments.”

The work of the sociobiologist is to view the human from a macro perspective. In this way, one will be able to implement other fields of knowledge and research into their approach, and thereby come to a far more nuanced conclusion—one that will further answer the question of human nature.

“The question of interest is no longer whether human social behavior is genetically determined; it is to what extent.”

In previous eras, the philosophical, moral question of human behavior was indeterminate as to whether or not one’s physical, genetic makeup played a part in behavior. Scientific knowledge has advanced to such a degree that it is now not a question of “if,” but a question of “how much” genetics plays into behavior.

“It is also interesting to speculate that if people were somehow raised from birth in an environment devoid of most cultural influence, they would construct basic elements of human social life ab initio.”

Wilson’s questioning of human nature goes further into the makeup of a person than a purely cultural approach. He is convinced that humans would create largely the same cultures and societies that have existed (and exist now), even if the past were erased and humanity had to restart from the beginning.

“If natural selection is continued over many generations, the favored genes will spread throughout the population, and the trait will become characteristic of the species.”

The definition of natural selection is that traits advantageous to one’s species will be passed on genetically through reproduction. At a certain point, the species will gain a collective advantage through generations of inheriting particular traits.

“The evidence is strong that almost all differences between human societies are based on learning and social conditioning rather than on heredity.”

Wilson’s theory of humans’ biological hardwiring encouraging them to behave in particular ways necessitates finding differences in societal structure among various peoples and cultures. Social conditioning is a strong explanation for these differences.

“Thus even in the relatively simple categories of behavior we inherit a capacity for certain traits, and a bias to learn one or another of those available.”

While the biological foundation of human nature and behavior is undeniable, it is not so determinative that it necessitates particular traits. Rather, biological and genetic causes allow for a capacity to learn and exhibit particular traits as opposed to others; human genetics determine a limited number of outcomes, not infinite possibilities.

“There is evidence that the human mind is innately structured so as to string words together in certain arrangements and not others.”

One of the defining characteristics of human nature is the potential for language and speech. The biological structure of the human brain allows for this ability, rather than anything inherently cultural.

“The great paradox of determinism and free will… if our genes are inherited and our environment is a train of physical events set in motion before we were born, how can there be a truly independent agent within the brain?”

Even the question of free will—almost exclusively restricted to philosophy—needs to be readdressed through the lens of biological science. The material causes of human behavior seem to be predetermined in many ways. Considering our biology is unchangeable, our genetics inherited, and our environment outside of our control, one must delve into how it is possible for humans to claim the capacity for free will.

“To a lesser and still unknown degree the statistical behavior of human societies might be predicted, given a sufficient knowledge of human nature, the histories of the societies, and their physical environment.”

While individual actions are often unpredictable, the collective behavior of communities and societies can, in theory, be predicted. With enough accumulated data, Wilson believes the very trajectory of human society can be calculated.

“The question of interest, then, is the extent to which the hereditary qualities of hunter-gatherer existence have influenced the course of subsequent cultural evolution.”

Humans have long inherited traits that benefited their ancestral forebears. The question to consider is how these inherited traits have influenced the development of culture and societies across the globe, for better or for worse.

“The similarities between the early civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Mexico, and Central and South America in these major features are remarkably close. They cannot be explained away as the products of chance or cultural cross-fertilization.”

In surveying the vast number of cultures and peoples who have existed throughout history, one discovers remarkable similarities in arts and practices. There are too many similarities to ascribe them to chance or arbitrary custom—there must be something innate in humans that directs disparate cultures to follow similar trajectories.

“We can hope to decide more judiciously which of the elements of human nature to cultivate and which to subvert, which to take open pleasure with and which to handle with care.”

As a result of contemporary scientific research and historical knowledge, humans can now make conscious decisions about progress that previous generations could not. We are capable of discerning which cultural practices to keep, omit, develop, and direct in new directions.

“Throughout history, warfare, representing only the most organized technique of aggression, has been endemic to every form of society, from hunter-gatherer bands to industrial states.”

Something common to all human cultures is the organized violence of war. According to Wilson, warfare is not accidental to human nature but innate; there is far too much historical evidence of war to say that it is simply a learned habit.

“Our brains do appear to be programmed to the following extent: we are inclined to partition other people into friends and aliens…”

A leftover trait from ancient times—and something we have in common with “lower” animals—is the proclivity to divide everyone and everything into the two categories of friend or foe. While this may not make for easy or pleasant interactions in the modern world, it has historically been the most efficient way to stay alive—and has thus integrated itself into modern humans.

“Anatomy bears the imprint of the sexual division of labor.”

Ignoring questions of gender or gender roles, the biological differences between male and female humans provide the foundation for the division of labor that emerges in almost every society in history. Due to the male body being (on average) larger, stronger, and faster, the males of each culture typically take on the more physically demanding labor required for flourishing (hunting, building, etc.), leaving labor that is not as physically demanding (domestic) to the females of the community.

“The nuclear family, based on long-term sexual bonding, geographical mobility, and female domesticity, is declining…”

There are various factors which play into the slow decline of the nuclear family (two parents with any number of children). In large part, the decline is due to women being allowed to occupy the public square and the relative ease with which both men and women can abandon (or decide not to partake in) familial responsibilities. The contemporary societal structure does not reward family stability as it did in past generations, making it less advantageous to individuals.

“We sanctify true altruism in order to reward it and thus to make it less than true, and by that means to promote its recurrence in others.”

The reality of “true altruism” comprises a selfless act with no benefit to the individual who performs it—or even an act that directly opposes them. Society recognizes the value of altruistic acts and has developed ways to reward them, thus making some acts no longer truly altruistic.

“The predisposition to religious belief is the most complex and powerful force in the human mind and in all probability an ineradicable part of human nature.”

Religious belief is possibly the most defining characteristic of humans. The fact that it is present in every culture and every place at every time means it is hardwired into the makeup of human nature—and is likely never going to disappear based on natural selection.

“We must now inquire: Is the readiness to be indoctrinated a neurologically based learning rule that evolved through the selection of clans competing one against the other?”

Wilson believes the basis of religious belief in a singular idea or cause over others needs to be further investigated. One factor that may contribute to current beliefs is a person needing to be devoted to their tribe in opposing a competing group.

“Human nature is, moreover, a hodgepodge of special genetic adaptations to an environment largely vanished, the world of the Ice-Age hunter-gatherer.”

We currently inhabit a world that is (historically) radically different from that inhabited by our ancestors. Our genetic makeup and inherited traits were honed over a long time in harsh environments and circumstances that no longer hold for many societies.

“Because natural selection has acted on the behavior of individuals who benefit themselves and their immediate relatives, human nature bends us to the imperatives of selfishness and tribalism.”

Life is lived in the particular and the local, and thus natural selection—due to the choices made by individuals—also tends to benefit the particular and the local. This plays out in relationships by encouraging people to favor themselves and their close relations (family and friends) over strangers and enemies.