Life of Black Hawk

Content Warning: This section references racist and violent actions committed by white people and the nations of the United States, France, Spain, and Great Britain.

During the colonial expansion of the United States, relations between Indigenous nations and white settlers were complicated and fraught with tension and violence. Indigenous Americans resisted white violence, encroachment, and control of their lands either with wars, alliances, or diplomatic endeavors. The United States government continued with policies of enforced removal and resettlement of Indigenous lands.

By the mid-18th century, Indigenous tribes living east of the Mississippi River realized that colonialism threatened their nations, and they became concerned about how to maintain their lands and independence. During the American Revolutionary War, Indigenous tribes adopted different strategies, hoping to best serve their cause. Tribes like the Iroquois, Cherokee, Cree, and Shawnee allied with the British, while others remained neutral; and tribes like the Delaware and the Potawatomi supported the Americans. Both American and British sides sought the support of Indigenous Americans. Different alliances and conflicting decisions often caused rifts within and among Indigenous nations. At the end of the war and with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain recognized the independence of the United States and ceded most of its colonies. The role of the Indigenous tribes as soldiers and diplomats contributed to and shaped the outcome of the war. However, the peace treaty did not include the nations that fought for their own sovereignty and did not specify their future under further white settlement. The conflict between Indigenous nations and the United States government continued and extended throughout the 19th century.

As the American expansion continued west, many nations resisted white settlement and engaged in armed conflicts in what are historically termed as “Indian Wars.” Indigenous resistance delayed European colonization. Major conflicts during the early 19th century include: the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, when the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh formed a group to inhibit further settlement in Indiana and Illinois; the War of 1812 between British forces and the United States, where Indigenous tribes fought as allies on both sides; the Black Hawk War in 1832 between the United States and a group of the Sauk, Meskwaki (Fox), and the Kickapoo tribes under the leadership of Black Hawk; and the Seminole Wars that spanned from 1812 to 1858.

The United States government began to negotiate treaties with the Indigenous nations to obtain their lands. This practice was purposefully misleading and deceiving due to lack of translation and misunderstandings, while several Indigenous delegations that signed treaties were not authorized to represent the whole tribe. A milestone in governmental policy toward Indigenous Americans was the Indian Removal Act of 1830 signed by Andrew Jackson. The act reflected the political intentions of the United States and initiated a prolonged period of violent displacement and relocation of Indigenous tribes. The government was authorized to grant land west of the Mississippi River to southeastern tribes that agreed to move out of their homelands. As several tribes resisted and tried to defend their lands, the government often violently enforced removals and violated treaties. Major eastern tribes that refused to move included the Chickasaw, the Cree, the Cherokee, the Choctaw, and the Seminole. The Cherokee removal became known as the “Trail of Tears.” Despite resistance and prolonged conflict, most of the eastern tribes were removed west.

In the following years, westward expansion of white settlement continued, further reducing Indigenous lands. The United States’ policies throughout the 19th century were based upon the exploitative reservation system and violent and enforced cultural assimilation.