Homeric Hymns

The son of Zeus and the Titan Leto, Apollo is one of the most represented gods in Greek mythology. God of the sun, poetry, music, medicine, prophecy, and much more, Apollo is a complex and important deity. The Homeric Hymns refer to him as both Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo; the first epithet represents his protection over seafarers and foreigners, and the second represents his status as the patron deity of the oracle of Delphi.

Beautiful in appearance, Apollo is considered the ideal kouros, which are statue depictions of athletic, youthful males. He is the twin brother of Artemis and is a gifted lyrist. His addition to the pantheon presents the first possibility of an intergenerational conflict. However, Apollo decides to champion his father’s will, as evidenced in his defeating Pytho and, therefore, Hera’s rebellion against Zeus’s rule. While Apollo is portrayed favorably in the hymns dedicated to him, he appears antagonistic in the hymn to Hermes. He is predominantly associated with light imagery, as the epithet Phoebus (“the bright one”) suggests. Apollo is loyal to his father and a stern leader of the gods.

The son of the nymph Maia and Zeus, Hermes is the god of travelers, thieves, and shepherds. He is a messenger for the gods and wears winged sandals to quickly travel between worlds. Hermes also escorts souls into the Underworld and is associated with the lyre and trickery. His trickery is most notably seen in the Homeric Hymns, where he steals Apollo’s cattle. He marries a sheepherder named Dryops and fathers a son, Pan, who is half human and half goat.

Hermes is the embodiment of transgressing thresholds. He is conceived by Zeus crossing into the mortal world and is patron over those who cross boundaries, such as travelers, thieves, or the dead who cross into the afterlife. Hermes possesses much wit and a Robin Hood mentality toward the distribution of material goods, as it evidenced in his desire to share Apollo’s large lot. He is associated with the herding whip Apollo gifted to him.

Aphrodite is the goddess of love, lust, beauty, and passion. She is married to Hephaestus, god of metalworking and fire. The Homeric Hymns depict Aphrodite’s love affair with a mortal, Anchises, as punishment for causing other gods to fall in love with mortals. She is associated with seashells and pearls, which symbolize her birth from seafoam as found in Hesiod’s Theogony. However, her origins are not consistent within Greek mythology, with Homer’s Iliad claiming her to be the daughter of Zeus and Dione, a Titan. This discrepancy gave way to two epithets for the goddess, Aphrodite Ourania and Aphrodite Pandemos. The former refers to her birth out of the seafoam submerging Cronus’s genitals, and the later refers to her birth from Zeus and Dione.

In the Homeric Hymns, Aphrodite adheres to the theme of the intersection between the immortal world and the mortal world. The conception of a child with a mortal man forever solidifies her fall from grace into mortal temptations. Beautiful and persuasive, Aphrodite is portrayed as vain but kind to mortals.

Dionysus is commonly called by his Roman name, Bacchus, which refers to the frenzy his rites inspire (bakkheia). He is primarily associated with the Bacchic or Dionysian mysteries, a secret religious cult worshiping the god. While many of the rituals are unknown, scholars assume ceremonies to have included intoxicants, dancing, and theater performances in the hopes of liberating the individual from social constraints. Dionysus himself challenges social constraints through his gender identity, not conforming to the male/female binary. Therefore, he was not readily accepted by the Greeks. The son of Semele and Zeus, Dionysus is the god of wine and ecstasy. He is associated with the grapevine and ivy. In the Homeric Hymns, he is portrayed as having a sense of humor, being the god most amused by Pan’s goat-like appearance. He is also capable of immense wrath, such as when he unleashes a lion and a bear on Etruscan pirates.

Demeter, daughter of Cronus and Rhea, is the goddess of fertility, agriculture, and motherhood. The hymn to Demeter found in the Homeric Hymns has a rich history in the Eleusinian Mysteries, or the initiations into the cult of Demeter and Persephone. These initiations included acting out Persephone’s abduction, Demeter’s grief, and Demeter’s reunion with Persephone. Demeter is often associated with wheat and cornucopias. The goddess also has ties to the Underworld, highlighting the reciprocity between life and death. In the Homeric Hymns, she enacts the motif of crossing thresholds. She suffers an identity crisis after losing her daughter to marriage with Hades, prompting her to live amongst mortals and forgo her divine connection to motherhood and fertility.

Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and chastity; often depicted with a stag, she is a talented archer. She is considered a lunar deity and is grouped with other goddesses of the moon, such as Selene and Hecate. Artemis is also considered a kourotrophic deity, kourotrophic meaning child-nurturing. Therefore, Artemis protects children, specifically young women. Artemis’s sexual abstinence stands in stark contrast to Aphrodite’s sexual liberality and allows for her to remain uninfluenced by Aphrodite’s persuasion. Like her twin brother Apollo, she is highly venerated amongst the gods and has multiple temples. In the Homeric Hymns, she is intelligent and ruthless while hunting. Her relationship with Apollo displays the harmonious nature of the pantheon under Zeus’s rule.

Athena is the daughter of the Titan Metis and Zeus. Born out of Zeus’s head and in full battle armor, Athena is the goddess of wisdom and war strategy. She is often given the epithet Pallas, indicating her protection over Athens and her patronage over city-states. Athena is associated with owls and is generally depicted wearing armor, but her most notable symbol is the aegis, the animal skin shield carried by her and Zeus. The sharing of the aegis represents a reciprocal relationship between Zeus and Athena and solidifies her place within the pantheon. She also challenges traditional gender roles, occupying the traditionally masculine domain of war strategy and wisdom.

As one of the most powerful goddesses, Athena does present the possibility for intergenerational conflict, yet like Apollo, decides to champion Zeus’s will instead. She is often contrasted with Ares and is considered to be more powerful and influential than her brother. In the Homeric Hymns, her birth is portrayed as an epic ordeal that shakes all of Olympus.

Wife and sister of Zeus, the queen of Olympus is the goddess of marriage and family. Hera is predominantly characterized by immense jealousy and anger toward Zeus’s affairs and his ability to procreate without her. Her jealousy is most pronounced in the hymns to Apollo. In the hymn to Delian Apollo, Hera hides Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, from Leto so that Apollo (Zeus’s “misbegotten” son) may never be born. In the hymn to Pythian Apollo, Hera attempts to overthrow Zeus by creating her own heir to the throne, Typhaon. She continuously attempts to undermine Zeus’s rule throughout the Homeric Hymns but is never successful.

Hera is typically depicted wearing a crown and holding a scepter. In Greek literature, she is given the epithets “white-armed” and “ox-eyed.” Some of the earliest Greek monuments and temples were constructed in her honor. In the Homeric Hymns, she is presented as vengeful, jealous, and spiteful.

Pan is the son of Dryops, a sheepherder, and Hermes. He possesses both human and goat attributes. God of nature and shepherds, he is a close companion with nymphs and is often associated with sexuality and fertility. He is also often depicted playing the pan flute. Pan is the result of the crossing of thresholds like his father. Further, his appearance manifests the duality between gods and nature. In the Homeric Hymns, Pan is portrayed as simple, ugly, and musically gifted.

Hephaestus is the god of metalwork and fire and is the patron of blacksmiths and artisans. He is praised in the Homeric Hymns for the gift of engineering. It is debated by scholars whether Hephaestus is the son of Hera and Zeus or the asexual creation of Hera. Maimed and crippled, Hephaestus is neglected and teased by the other gods for his deformities. Hephaestus welds weapons for the gods and is associated with a smith’s hammer and a pair of tongs. He is married to Aphrodite, goddess of lust.

Hestia is the virgin goddess of the hearth and is thus the patron of family life and domesticity. In some accounts, Hestia is the first-born child of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. As the goddess of sacrificial fire, it is Greek custom for Hestia to receive the first offering of every sacrifice. She is highly venerated amongst the gods.

The god of the sun, Helios is closely associated with Apollo. Helios drives a golden chariot across the sky every morning, pulling the sun behind him. He is the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa, the grandson of Gaia and Uranus, and the brother of Selene. Helios functions as an explanation for natural phenomena, specifically how the sun sets and rises.

The goddess of the moon, Selene is closely associated with the lunar goddesses, Artemis and Hecate. She drives a chariot through the night sky, pulling the moon behind her. She is the daughter of Hyperion and Euryphaessa, the granddaughter of Gaia and Uranus, and the sister of Helios. Selene functions as an explanation for natural phenomena of the motion of the moon.

Son of Zeus and Hera, Ares is the god of war, combat, and courage. As the personification of brutality and bloodshed, the Greeks were indifferent toward the god. Ares is often contrasted with his sister, Athena, the goddess of war strategy and wisdom. He is associated with swords, spears, and other weapons used in war.

Heracles is a divine hero, or rather, a demigod. He was born from Zeus and Alcmene, a mortal woman. In contemporary Western renditions, he is known as Hercules.

Asclepius is the son of Coronis, a mortal princess, and Apollo. He is god of medicine and surgery.

Dioscuri refers to the twin sons of Zeus, Castor and Polydeuces. Zeus seduces Leda, a mortal woman, in the form of a swan and impregnates her. In some accounts the twins are considered half-brothers, with Zeus fathering Polydeuces, and Leda’s husband, Tyndareus, fathering Castor. The deities protect sailors and athletes.

Poseidon is the god of the sea, horses, earthquakes, and storms. He is known for owning a Pegasus, a winged horse. Often depicted with a trident, Poseidon protects seafarers.

Hecate is the goddess of witchcraft and is associated with the lunar goddesses, Artemis and Selene. In the Homeric Hymns, she alerts Demeter of Persephone’s forced marriage to Hades. Her symbols include serpents, daggers, and keys.

Hades is the god of the Underworld. In some accounts, he is the eldest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. In the Homeric Hymns, he is the husband of Persephone. Hades is associated with the dead and wealth and is often depicted with Cerberus, a three-headed guard dog for the Underworld.