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guide to literary theory and criticism

A Comprehensive Resource for Close Reading, Deeper Understanding, and Analytical Discussion

Literature is meant to convey meaning, but understanding the message of a novel, play, or poem can take some digging. If you have the right tools, you can gain a deep understanding of the texts you read — and approach literature’s most intimidating topics with confidence. This article presents a host of background information and useful resources to help you make use of a reader’s most essential tools: literary theory and literary criticism.

Sigmund Freud is often credited, rightly or wrongly, with the assertion that “[s]ometimes a cigar is just a cigar.” But what if the cigar in the novel you just read is not, in fact, just a cigar, but a symbol of oppression or suppressed desire or even jealousy? The narratives, settings, and characters of literature can and often do represent more than what at first meets the eye. Literary theory and criticism can shine a light on those underlying meanings to help you: 

What Is Literary Theory? What Is Literary Criticism?

Literary theory is a way of interpreting a work of art. When readers and scholars engage in literary criticism, which is the practice of evaluating literature, they often use literary theories to inform their ideas and opinions about a text. 

Though the terms “literary criticism” and “literary theory” are related, they are not interchangeable. Some scholars like to think of literary theories as eyeglasses or camera lenses through which they can examine and evaluate works of literature or other pieces of art. Then, what they see through each lens (each theory) becomes the focus of their literary criticism. Literary criticism is a research method or a kind of scholarly discourse that engages with literary theory.

For example, just as a bifocal or a tinted lens will reveal certain qualities of a work of art, so can different literary theories. A work of feminist literary criticism will contain observations about a text that reveal what it’s like to be female. Writers of feminist criticism will likely employ feminist literary theory to support their scholarly arguments. An argument based on the same text examined through a lens of Marxist theory, however, might focus more on how the text regards a particular social class.

Many different literary theories exist, and scholars often blend two or more theories into their interpretations of literary texts. As time passes, new theories that reflect contemporary issues and mindsets emerge, adding richness and nuance to the study of literature.

Learning resources: 

The History of Literary Theory

The origins of literary theory go back to Plato and Aristotle and the roots of philosophy. To Plato, literature is divinely inspired, but it is written by humans and, therefore, not a trustworthy source of truth. For this reason, Plato’s ideal society excludes poets to ensure that knowledge-seekers are not confused by poetry and other forms of literature. Many scholars credit Aristotle’s defense of the poetic modes that Plato decried as the foundation of modern literary theory. 

Much later, in the 19th century, other European thinkers expanded on these ancient ideas. For example, the Romanticism movement in Germany and England celebrated the same divine qualities of poets that worried Plato, placing high value on the potential of literature to reveal truth. 

The literary theorists of the 20th century have certainly followed suit. Contemporary thinkers continue to demonstrate to students and scholars alike that literature has the power to illuminate what it is to be human in the context of the societies in which we all live.

Learning resources: 

Literary Theory Examples

In addition to feminist and Marxist literary theories already mentioned, there are many literary theories — or lenses — through which one can interpret a work of literature. Here are several examples of the most prevalent schools of thought as well as a brief description of each. 

  • Structuralist Theory gained notoriety in the 1920s. Since then, it has been widely accepted as one of the more complicated literary theories in existence. In a nutshell, structuralists look at how language and linguistics operate as a kind of written or oral code. Just as language and music contain patterns, so does literature; literary patterns are sometimes revealed in a writer’s use of myths and archetypes, symbols, or even genre.
  • Psychoanalytic Theory originates from the work of Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Theory as a literary theory emerged in the 1930s. It examines the role of the psyche and the unconscious in individuals and literary characters as they interpret the impact of society and culture on themselves and others.
  • The origins of Marxist Theory are credited to German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), who believed that people are the product of the economic and social environments in which they grow up. Since the 1930s, Marxists have been studying the tensions between social classes as they appear in literature and elsewhere. In addition to economic concerns, Marxists also examine how a text uses politics to uphold or challenge social norms. 
  • Feminist Theory emerged in the 1960s, and the interests of feminist scholars, like the various definitions of feminism itself, do not always overlap. One overarching concern does unite all feminists, however: the power dynamics that stem from stereotypes and discriminatory practices involving women. 
  • Since the 1970s, Critical Race Theory and African American Literary Theory has enabled scholars in America to investigate the impact of race and racism as observed in various forms of expression. African American Studies as well as Asian American, Latino and Indian Studies are all closely linked to this literary theory — as well as matters of social activism, civil and human rights, and cultural perceptions of race and stereotypes. 
  • New Historicism emerged in the 1980s. To New Historicists, literature reveals the writer’s interpretation of historical events rather than the actual facts of the events. Cultural studies examine the role of culture in literature, both from the writer’s point of view and from that of the characters in the text.
  • Gender Studies and Queer Theory came about in the 1990s. Scholars of this school develop their ideas about literature while thinking about gender and sexuality. Feminist Theory is often linked with Gender Studies and Queer Theory because all three schools of thought concern power and marginalized populations.
  • Postcolonial Studies emerged in the 1990s to illuminate literature by writers representing both Western colonizers and the colonized. Issues as varied as politics, religion, culture and economics all matter within the context of power, and these issues form the basis of Postcolonial Studies.

Key Figures in Literary Theory

Hundreds of thinkers and scholars have contributed to the development of literary theory, and they continue to stimulate new ideas regarding art, writing and culture. Here is a brief introduction to ten key figures every literary scholar should know.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): English writer and philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft was an early proponent of women’s rights. In her seminal text A Vindication of the Rights of Women, published in 1792, Wollstonecraft argues that women are not subordinate to men and that feminine conventions are highly oppressive to women. Wollstonecraft is credited by many contemporary feminists as laying the groundwork for the feminist movement.
  • Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986): French feminist, existentialist and social theorist Simone de Beauvoir was the first to articulate the distinction between one’s sex, a matter of biology, and one’s gender, a matter of myriad social constructs and stereotypes. Many literary theorists regard de Beauvoir’s philosophical writings as fundamental to our contemporary understanding of gender roles in society.
  • Judith Butler (1956- ): The writings of American professor, philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler appear on many a queer theory reading list around the world. According to Butler, gender identities have a lot to do with how individuals repetitively “perform” their gender according to dominant expectations, stereotypes and conventions of gender. 
  • bell hooks (1952- ): Gloria Jean Watkins uses this pen name to honor her great-grandmother and to draw attention away from her name and identity and towards her ideas. As an American professor and feminist activist, hooks has written about art, media, gender, race and class. Her contributions to literary theory are appreciated within the contexts of several different literary schools of thought.
  • Roland Barthes (1915-1980): French literary theorist Roland Barthes was primarily concerned with the potential of signs to carry meaning. His complex ideas around communication, language, and cultural phenomena impacted the development of Structuralism and semiotics as literary theories. 
  • Noam Chomsky (1928- ): American theoretical linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky is widely regarded as a true polymath, having contributed to the study of mathematics, psychology, analytic philosophy and other fields. In the context of literary theory, Chomsky is best known for his ideas around linguistics and psycholinguistics. 
  • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis. His psychoanalytic theory of personality, which involves the id, the ego and the superego, can be applied to people and characters, revealing Freud’s ideas surrounding their motivations and their reactions to the world around them.
  • W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963): American poet, sociologist and civil rights activist W.E.B. DuBois is famous for his scholarly works that argued for the equal treatment of Black people in a world that regarded Black people as inferior. As a professor of sociology, economics and history, he often applied Marxist theory to his interpretation of American history.
  • Karl Marx (1818-1883): German historian, economist and sociologist Karl Marx co-authored, with Friedrich Engels, several texts that provided a foundation for the political movements of socialism and communism. Marx’s humanism and his concern for the plight of the lower classes inspired the revolutionary ideas for which he is well known.
  • Edward Said (1935-2003): Palestinian-American professor Edward Said is a founder of the field of Postcolonial Studies. He was the first to point out the European tendency to represent Asians unfairly in literature and art in order to assert the power of the West over the East; this tendency results in damaging stereotypes that characterize the people of the East as inferior to Westerners.

How to Choose A Literary Theory

Choosing which literary theory — or theories — to use to inform your close reading depends on the questions you’re pondering. You don’t have to choose just one. In her seminal work, Critical Theory Today, Lois Tyson uses a florist’s bins of flowers as a metaphor to explain the relationship between different literary theories; for Tyson, just as each bin holds a different kind of flower, each literary theory offers readers a different way to understand — or “see” — a text. Just as different types of flowers can combine to make striking bouquets that are more beautiful in combination than on their own, literary theories can overlap to create a deeper appreciation and richer understanding of the elements at work in a piece of literature. 

So what are you trying to get out of the works you’re studying? Perhaps you want to dispel confusions about a text, form a clearer opinion about the author’s intent, or figure out why your reading of a narrative is so different from someone else’s. Once you understand the type of questions you want to ask about a work of literature, you are ready to locate the literary theories that will best inform your process.

Learning resources:

  • Literary Theories: Analysis Questions: The University of Texas - Arlington Libraries offers a great list of analysis questions for various types of literary theory to help you see the kinds of questions you can ask about a text that will take your understanding to the next level.
  • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Literary Theory: The IEP, hosted by the University of Tennessee at Martin, compares several popular schools of literary theory and provides various resources for further reading.
  • Finding a Literary Criticism Approach: This guide from Pellissippi State Community College Libraries offers step-by-step tips to writers of critical essays.
  • Finding Books with Literary Criticism: The University of Illinois at Chicago offers this resource to library-goers in search of books and articles about literary criticism. This article also contains helpful advice to users of databases like JSTOR and ProjectMuse.

Examples of Applying Literary Theory

Let’s see literary theory in action. Here are three examples that illustrate how applying a literary theory can enable close reading, dispel confusion, and help you deepen your understanding of a text. See below for further examples of how literary theory can be applied — and not just to works of literature.

1. Marxist reading of The Great Gatsby: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Nick feels a keen sense of discomfort when he attends one of Jay Gatsby’s lavish parties. To find out why, we apply a literary theory: A Marxist reading of Nick’s awkwardness offers scholars deeper insight into the scene, Nick’s character, and the character of Jay Gatsby himself. Nick’s social class sets him apart from Gatsby and his affluent guests, making Nick an outsider to the decadence of Gatsby’s world. A Marxist understanding of Nick’s role in the novel enhances the irony of the revelation that Gatsby is pretending to be someone he is not: In reality, he is the son of poor farmers, which means he has more in common with Nick than with his own party guests.

2. African American Literary Theory in To Kill a Mockingbird: In Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, Tom Robinson is a Black man whose arm was injured when he was a 12-year-old child; Tom’s left arm was caught in a cotton gin, leaving him disabled. What might the author’s purpose have been in giving Tom an injury of this nature? A scholarly interpretation of Tom’s disabled arm within the context of African American studies reveals that Tom’s injury is a symbol for his race. As a Black man in Alabama during the Great Depression, Tom is highly vulnerable; his disability compromises his ability to work just as his race compromises his ability to survive his trial after he is accused of sexually assaulting a White woman. The symbolism of Tom’s injured arm reveals the extent to which racism has the potential to harm and kill innocent men. 

3. Structuralism and Mythology: In mythology, the food of gods and goddesses takes the form of ambrosia and nectar; these food items are vastly different to the food of humans. A literary theory can help us understand why this difference exists and what it represents. A Structuralist reading of the different foods consumed by gods and humans illuminates a pattern of behavior that exists in all Greek myths. Food distinguishes humans from gods; only humans eat olives and drink wine, while gods consume ambrosia, nectar and the smoke of sacrificed offerings. A Structuralist examination of mythological eating patterns provides scholars with insight into the overarching myth system of ancient Greece and Rome.

Here are some further examples of literary theory in action — applied in some unexpected ways:

Putting Literary Theory Into Practice

When you’re ready to perform a close read on a text, it’s wise to read with a pen or highlighter in hand. Mark the passages you believe to have analytical potential — even if you’re not yet sure why they are meaningful. Then, review these passages, looking for patterns that help you see where to apply literary theory and begin developing your own literary criticism. Ask questions such as:

  • Do any symbols or motifs repeat themselves? 
  • How do the themes of the work interact with the literary theories you selected? 
  • Over the course of the work of literature, do any of the characters develop according to the predictions of the literary theories that most interest you? 

Sample Practice: A Postcolonial reading of Wide Sargasso Sea

To help you understand how patterns in a literary text can reveal meaning, here’s one more example: a Postcolonial reading of English writer Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea. This 1966 novel centers on a young heiress, Antoinette Cosway, born and raised on the Caribbean island of Martinique in the 1830s. Rhys based her character on Bertha Rochester from Charlotte Brontë’s 1847 classic novel Jane Eyre and tells the story of how she met and married Rochester, before she became the so-called “madwoman in the attic.”

In these three passages from Part 2 of the novel, Rochester has come to Martinique to marry Antoinette with the intention of exploiting her wealth:

Passage 1:

So it was all over, the advance and retreat, the doubts and hesitations. Everything finished, for better or for worse. There we were, sheltered from the heavy rain under a large mango tree, myself, my wife Antoinette and a little half-caste servant who was called Amélie. Under a neighbouring tree I could see our luggage covered with sacking, the two porters and a boy holding fresh horses, hired to carry us up 2,000 feet to the waiting honeymoon house.
The girl Amélie said this morning, ‘I hope you will be very happy, sir, in your sweet honeymoon house.’ She was laughing at me I could see. A lovely little creature but sly, spiteful, malignant perhaps, like much else in this place. (Part 2, Page 55)

Analysis 1: 

In this passage, Rochester reveals that he is suspicious of Amélie, who represents the island of Martinique as a whole. His descriptions of her contain a pattern: She is “little” and “half-caste,” which emphasizes her inferior position as a servant and as a person of Caribbean heritage. Amélie’s position enhances his resentment of her as he suspects her of mocking him; Rochester is sure that she is showing disrespect, which is more offensive for the fact that she is a servant and a West Indian. Rochester’s mistrust of Amélie is further demonstrated by both his use of harshly critical adjectives to describe her and his direct comparison of Amélie to the island on which he finds himself. From a Postcolonial perspective, Rochester, as an Englishman, represents the colonial power of Europe over the French colonies of the West Indies. His sense of superiority and dismissal of Amélie reflects widespread European attitudes towards colonized lands and their peoples. His sexual attraction to her, however, as evidenced by his use of the word “lovely,” complicates matters; as a European man, he may have legal power over the Martinican Amélie, but the sexual power of her beauty places him in a weaker position.

Passage 2:

Everything is too much, I felt as I rode wearily after her. Too much blue, too much purple, too much green. The flowers too red, the mountains too high, the hills too near. And the woman is a stranger. Her pleading expression annoys me. I have not bought her, she has bought me, or so she thinks. (Part 2, Page 59)

Analysis 2:

Rochester’s weary tone while describing the landscape of Martinique illustrates his acute discomfort while away from his own city and culture. The repetitive nature of his complaints form a pattern in this passage. The many colors of the island and the natural features of the land offend him and exacerbate his irritation with his wife, who was born and raised in this bright and colorful world. From a Postcolonial perspective, Rochester’s weariness indicates that he feels a sense of impatience with the land and its products, which he finds are garish and inferior to those of his own country. Rochester’s description of his wife as a “stranger” suggests that her origins and her person are too different from his own to be worthy of his trust and acceptance.

Passage 3:

There were trailing pink flowers on the table and the name echoed pleasantly in my head. Coralita Coralita. The food, though too highly seasoned, was lighter and more appetizing than anything I had tasted in Jamaica. We drank champagne. A great many moths and beetles found their way into the room, flew into the candles and fell dead on the tablecloth. Amélie swept them up with a crumb brush. Uselessly. More moths and beetles came. (Part 2, Page 67)

Analysis 3: 

At dinner, Rochester drinks champagne, and under the influence of alcohol, he is able to appreciate the beauty of the pink coralita flowers on the dinner table. The brightness of the pink color is as noticeable to the reader as the dead moths and beetles that also appear on the table in a contrasting pattern of color and darkness. The insects are drawn to the light of the candles, and their deaths take place near the life-giving plates of food Rochester and Antoinette eat for dinner. A Postcolonial reading of this scene reveals that the stillness of the insects, which have all died, and the stillness of the flowers, which were plucked from a living climbing vine, suggest the potential of Europe to overpower the people of their colonies. The presence of nature on the surface of the dinner table, however, suggests that the natural world of Martinique, represented by the flowers and the insects, cannot be completely eradicated by a European presence, which is symbolized by the champagne and candles.  

As you can see, putting literary theory into practice is easier than its lofty origins might suggest. After all, literary critics and scholars all use the same tools you now have to put literary theory into practice. After you select one or two theories to review, remember that you can add more theories to your study of literature as you learn more about your ideas and your interpretation of the text becomes more informed. Soon, you’ll be engaging with literary theory and criticism and contributing to literary scholarship with confidence.

Learning resources: 

Literary Theory Book List

If you’d like to learn more about this approach to literary analysis and deep reading, here is a book list to whet your appetite and deepen your understanding: