Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner is an educational psychology book first published in 1983. Frames of Mind posits that previous models of intelligence, mainly based around the intellectual quotient (IQ), are insufficient in modeling the multifaceted nature of human intelligence and ability. Drawing from cognitive psychology, neurology, anthropology, and education, Frames of Mind introduces the theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI), outlines its biological and cultural foundations, and considers its implications for educational practice and human potential. 

Gardner proposes that there are seven different types of intelligence that are present in every brain and that operate mostly separately from one another. Further, proper education of children requires teachers to understand these types of intelligence—musical, visual-spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal—and accommodate them in the classroom. Frames of Mind was groundbreaking in the sense that it ushered in an educational movement focused on understanding and accommodating different learning styles, an advantage for students who had trouble with traditional academia. 

This guide refers to the 2011 edition, published by Basic Books.

Content Warning: The source material and guide feature depictions of racism. 

Language Note: Frames of Mind uses outdated terms to refer to people with cognitive and developmental disabilities and differences, which this guide reproduces only in quotations.

Summary

Gardner covers the background and context of his theory in Part 1 by critiquing the limitations of traditional intelligence assessments, such as IQ tests. He argues that IQ tests in their current form privilege linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities to the exclusion of other vital forms of human cognition. In Chapter 1, Gardner opens with the example of a child taking an IQ test, followed by discussion of a Puluwat sailor, an Iranian Koranic scholar, and a Parisian music composer. These diverse examples serve to question conventional definitions of intelligence and introduce Gardner’s central argument: that human intelligence is not singular but composed of multiple, relatively autonomous faculties. He coins this the theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI). 

In Chapters 2 through 4, Gardner surveys the history of the concept of intelligence. He critiques earlier models, including phrenology and the IQ-based approach of early 20th-century psychology, for their reductionist assumptions. He discusses Piaget’s developmental stages and the rise of information-processing psychology, ultimately arguing for a “symbol systems” approach to studying intelligence. Symbols—such as language, music, and images—are culturally situated tools through which humans express and develop cognitive capacities. He also outlines the criteria a mental ability must meet to be considered a distinct intelligence, such as a unique developmental trajectory, neurological basis, evolutionary history, and potential for encoding in symbolic form.

In Part 2, Gardner introduces and examines in detail each of the seven intelligences his model proposes. Linguistic intelligence consists of the human capacity for language, both spoken and written. Gardner highlights the rhetorical, mnemonic, and analytical uses of language and examines the development of linguistic skill from childhood to mastery (as demonstrated by poets and writers). Musical intelligence involves the ability to perceive, appreciate, and produce music. Gardner distinguishes musical intelligence from other intelligences by citing neurological evidence and examples of prodigies and cultures whose strength lies uniquely in music.

Logical-mathematical intelligence involves abstract reasoning, numerical problem-solving, and pattern recognition. Gardner argues that Western education has historically overvalued this kind of intelligence due to its perceived objectivity. Spatial intelligence deals with the ability to visualize and manipulate spatial forms, which is essential in fields like architecture, navigation, and visual art. Gardner explores its developmental trajectory and neurological underpinnings. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence centers on the capacity to use the body to solve problems or express ideas. Examples, including dancers, athletes, and artisans, highlight that physical movement can be a form of intellectual activity.

Finally, Gardner covers the personal intelligences: intrapersonal and interpersonal. The former involves deep self-knowledge and regulation of emotions, while the latter entails understanding and responding to others’ emotions and behaviors. Gardner stresses that these intelligences are culturally variable and interrelated.

The remaining chapters of Part 2 anticipate and respond to criticisms of the MI model. Gardner also presents a theory of how to bridge the gap between individual intelligence and cultural systems. He acknowledges the limitations of MI—such as ambiguity in defining intelligence and difficulty in empirical validation—but defends its value as a conceptual framework that broadens society’s understanding of cognition. Then, Gardner uses symbols and their usages to connect intelligence to cultural systems. Gardner explains how children acquire meaning and knowledge via symbols like language, images, and pretend play, suggesting that symbol use is central to cognitive development and that culture mediates the expression of intelligence.

Part 3 applies MI theory to educational systems. Gardner revisits his earlier examples—the Puluwat navigator, the Islamic scholar, and the Parisian composer—and links each to a different educational model: pre-industrial apprenticeship, religious-literary schooling, and modern secular education, respectively. He critiques the narrow focus of most contemporary schools on linguistic and logical skills and argues for a broader model of education that values and cultivates multiple intelligences. 

In the final chapter, Gardner considers real-world applications of MI theory. He discusses programs like the Suzuki method for music education and Venezuela’s Machado Project, weighing their potential and limitations. Gardner advocates for educational practices that recognize children’s diverse intellectual profiles. He warns against rigid tracking based on IQ scores and urges a more observational, flexible approach that lets children’s strengths emerge through varied, multimodal learning experiences. He emphasizes that education should help develop each child’s individual potential, rather than forcing conformity to narrowly defined standards. Gardner concludes by reiterating that Frames of Mind is not intended as a definitive taxonomy of intelligence but as a starting point for rethinking how society defines and nurtures human potential.