62 pages • 2 hours read
Erewhon
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Themes
Moral Relativity and Individual Beliefs
Arguably, the main theme of Butler’s satire in Erewhon is that of morality and the idiosyncrasies of common beliefs. Upon his arrival in Erewhon, the narrator carries with him a series of beliefs and perspectives that English culture has ingrained in him, such as the need to punish criminals under the law, help the sick, believe in Christianity, and use technology as it develops. These all run counter to the beliefs and practices in Erewhon, and these contradictions fuel much of the discussion in the novel. The narrator dwells on the finer details of Erewhonian thought as though it is a strange and outlying system, when, through satire, Butler is really demonstrating how similar the supposedly “backward” Erewhonian beliefs are to the those of the Victorian English. Moral relativity denotes the idea that each culture develops a sense of morality individually, and there is no objective way to determine whether the morality of one culture is superior to that of another. Layered into this system are the differences between individuals, as the narrator finds diverse Erewhonian expressions of belief and allegiances across ideologies. The purpose of this theme is to encourage the reader to examine their own ingrained biases and beliefs, questioning them much as the narrator questions the Erewhonians’.
In his encounters with Chowbok early in the novel, the narrator feels compelled to convert the guide to Christianity, which is an urge that persists when he meets the Erewhonians, and, even at the end of the novel, the narrator still insists that he should return to Erewhon to convert them. Occasionally, the narrator mentions to Erewhonians in passing that he thinks there are flaws in their reasoning, or “unreasoning,” for believing in their gods and in their common practices. At one point, the narrator breaks down the feelings behind these urges, asking: “What could it matter to me how many absurdities the Erewhonians might adopt?” (150), but he notes immediately afterward: “Nevertheless I longed to make them think as I did, for the wish to spread those opinions that we hold conducive to our own welfare is so deeply rooted in the English character that few of us can escape its influence” (150). This instinct, however, is not uniquely English, but common among most people, since the values ingrained in the individual are often beyond their understanding. Critically, Erewhon is a utopian novel, not a dystopian one, as Erewhon is not a failed or failing nation. In a dystopia, society has failed and people are struggling to survive, while, in a utopia, people are generally happy, and Erewhon is most closely aligned with the latter.
As a result, the narrator’s instinct to share “those opinions that we hold conducive to our own welfare” (150) are not needed in Erewhon, and his reasoning for urging conversion to Christianity or reforms to the legal and medical systems are superfluous. He cannot make these attempts to better the lives of Erewhonians, since the Erewhonians seem to be perfectly content with their society as it is. The conclusion, then, is that the narrator is pushing for his own side of a morally relative disagreement, in which, though neither morality can be objectively superior, he sides with his own upbringing over the Erewhonian customs. Much as the narrator criticizes Erewhonian thought, Butler is urging his readers to apply that same scrutiny to their own beliefs.
Social Behavior Versus Civilization’s Rules
A common element across Erewhonian and English cultures is the contradiction between the professed beliefs and practices of a society and the actual behavior of the people within that society. The early signs of this practice are with Chowbok supposedly pretending to be a Christian, but they follow the narrator into the upper-class society of Erewhon as well, for the Nosnibors display a duplicitous nature in their social interactions. The best example of this is in their interaction with Mahaina, for Mrs. Nosnibor and Zulora publicly evince sympathy for Mahaina’s confession of her alcohol addiction, but after she leaves, they confess to the narrator that they believe she is physically weak and does not drink at all. This dynamic implies that with her claim of alcohol addiction, Mahaina is trying to mask a physical issue with a moral one. This raises the question of why the Nosnibors do not report Mahaina to the authorities for her physical illness, and why they waver, even when Mahaina is not present, between believing and disbelieving her. Likewise, as the Nosnibors bring the narrator to the Musical Bank, he discovers that although people claim to love and respect the Musical Bank, they commonly profess that the institution is useless and outdated. Later in the novel, Butler paints this contradiction as one that lies between Common Sense and Duty: terms which align with social behavior and civilization, respectively.
As the narrator and various Erewhonian authors attempt to describe the development of civilization, they seem to align civilization with the idea of Duty, in which people are expected to behave according to the edicts and conditions of the agreed-upon laws of the country. However, there is another layer to civilized life, which is Common Sense, or the customary social behaviors of the people. For example, Mahaina is ultimately expected to conceal her illness, since in the Erewhonian value system, having a physical illness contradicts Duty. Since illness itself is illegal, Erewhonians have a responsibility to remain healthy, which is where Common Sense manifests as the urge to conceal illness when it arises so as to avoid punishment. The narrator notes that a small minority believe that “illness is in many cases just as curable as the moral diseases which they see daily cured round them” (100): an assertion that aligns with his own view, since, in England, a sick person would go to a doctor for medical help. In Erewhon, a person considered to have a moral illness goes to a straightener for psychological help, and given that Erewhon is a land that reverses traditional English mores and values, it can be concluded that Butler is critiquing the common practice in Victorian times of vilifying and punishing those who show evidence of psychological issues.
Most importantly, the narrator acknowledges that, were the Erewhonians to overcome their stigma against physical illness, which is driven by law and Duty, they would have a better chance of overcoming such illnesses through medical help. This situation is meant to contrast with Common Sense, which argues that it is better to seek help for a problem than conceal it, but which forces concealment when there is a contradiction to Duty, and Duty, itself, which desires people to follow the law. What the narrator should take from this, and what Butler likely intended the reader to understand, is that civilization and social behavior are entwined in such a way that neither can be helped without modification to the other. In England, then, as in Erewhon, the legal stigma against either crime or illness should be removed, allowing people to freely seek assistance for these issues in order to overcome them.
Imperialist Thought and Satire
The narrator of Erewhon is inherently an imperialist character, as he brings to New Zealand and Erewhon a sense of superiority and a proselytizing attitude. The basis of imperialism is the idea that the home country is superior to all others, and that there is an order of magnitude to civilization, along which the home country is at the top, and so-called “savage” peoples are at the bottom. Many imperialists, as a result, felt it was their responsibility to bring Christianity and European values to foreign countries that were seen as “savage,” in order to “improve” such countries with imperialist ideals of what a civilization should be. The narrator is one such imperialist, and his intentions of converting the Erewhonians and Chowbok to Christianity quickly develop into an interest in exploiting and profiting from these people when the opportunity presents itself. The satire of this theme can be found in Butler’s intention to criticize key elements of imperialism, though he seems to have included some tropes of imperialist thought unironically to support the overall goals of the imperial structure.
The main criticism levied at imperialism in the novel is the narrator’s duplicitous explanations of his motives in journeying to Erewhon, converting Chowbok and the Erewhonians, and arranging contracts between the English colonies and the Erewhonian people. When the narrator first speculates that the Erewhonians are the lost tribe of Israel, he seems excited by the prospect of the significance that such a discovery will have across Christianity. However, as he begins to doubt this possibility, he reflects more coldly, “I could not but regret that my hopes of making money, which had led me into so much trouble and danger, were almost annihilated” (55). This admission reveals that his “hopes” were always aligned with his own profits, rather than on the benefits to either Christianity or the Erewhonians. This criticism was commonly placed against imperialism, with authors like Butler noting that the moral and ethical reasons that attempted to justify imperial conquest (such as “saving” the souls of the Indigenous people), were often false pretenses to excuse the oppression of those Indigenous communities for profit, and the narrator clearly following this pattern throughout the novel.
Most importantly, the final chapter of Erewhon details how the narrator plans to return to Erewhon with men and weapons to either convince the Erewhonians to work as servants on English plantations, or to force them with violence to do the same. He does also mention that it “would be my and Arowhena’s duty” (228) to ensure that the Erewhonians forced into labor on the plantations “should be boarded and lodged in the households of religious sugar-growers” (228), thereby ensuring their conversion to Christianity. However, this conversion would only happen after using violence to force the Erewhonians to consent to servitude on the plantations. Likewise, the entire novel is finally framed as an advertisement, betraying the true motive of even the writing of the narrator’s experiences as another way to make a fortune off the culture and experiences of the Erewhonian people.
The Moral Implications of Technological Advancement
The most notable section of Erewhon is the Book of the Machines, which is transcribed across Chapters 23-25 of the text. The Book of the Machines is the text that convinced the Erewhonians that they needed to destroy all of their technology up to a certain point in order to avoid the eventual destruction of humanity by highly evolved machinery. This section has been interpreted in different ways, even by Butler himself, who wavered on whether he thought Darwinian evolution was accurate or not. Ultimately, the Book of the Machines can be interpreted to foreshadow legitimate technological advancement even though engages with comparisons that many would find foolish. The main point of the Book of the Machines is an examination of morality and the definition of consciousness, as well as a list of strictures on how people ought to behave with things that may have a consciousness of their own, even when they are different from humanity.
The author of the Book of the Machines clarifies that he does not fear the present machinery, as it has not yet developed the ability to control itself fully or to reproduce. However, he speculates that the machines “will use us kindly, for their existence will be in a great measure dependent upon ours” (194), thereby comparing this kindness to humans’ treatment of domestic animals. However, this comparison is drawn further to humanity, with the author claiming, “Slaves are tolerably happy if they have good masters, and the revolution will not occur in our time” (194). This sentiment hints that subjugation under the machines will not be so horrible as some might argue. This line, though, carries a fundamental inconsistency, which is that enslaved peoples are happy: a deeply problematic claim that even the evidence of Butler’s time had already proven to be entirely false. This inconsistency then forms the basis of the author’s argument, as he says he cannot believe that his “race can ever be superseded or surpassed” (195). The author’s pride is indicative of the fundamental immorality of treating other human beings or animals as lesser, since it violates their basic dignity as living beings.
Such basic dignity, however, is not afforded to the machines, as the author ultimately calls for their destruction to protect humanity. The counterargument to the Book of the Machines speculates a different fate for humanity in relation to technology, in which humans become more machinelike over time, slowly reducing the use of the body in proportion to the usefulness of machines. This, too, carries a moral implication, as this second author notes that the wealthier a person already is, the more “human” they are by virtue of the additional “limbs” they can acquire, meaning technology. This sets up an inherently unequal perception of humanity in which the poor are condemned to subhuman status, while the rich are elevated to superhumanity.
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