Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes

The “Middle World,” defined by land routes, emerged as a distinct region before Islam, contrasting with the Mediterranean world that was shaped by sea routes. Ancient sea traffic centered around the Mediterranean, where numerous early cultures met, leading to the birth of Western civilization. In contrast, the Middle World, connected by overland trade routes, linked regions from the Indian subcontinent to Mesopotamia and Egypt, forming a nexus around the Persian Gulf, the Indus and Oxus Rivers, and various seas. This area, later known as the Islamic world, lacks a single label, but the author prefers calling it the Middle World for its position between the Mediterranean and Chinese worlds.

Geography isolated China and sub-Saharan Africa from these worlds, while the Americas formed a distinct universe due to their separation. Despite geographical barriers, the Mediterranean and Middle worlds were “intercommunicating zones” with distinct internal interactions and narratives of world history. These two worlds developed separate yet overlapping histories, particularly in the region encompassing modern-day Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan—a territory claimed by both the sea-lane-centered Mediterranean world and the land-route-dominated Middle World.

The Middle World’s narrative begins with early civilizations flourishing along fertile river valleys like Mesopotamia’s Tigris and Euphrates. This region, which would be in modern-day Iraq, witnessed the rise and fall of numerous empires, with a recurring pattern of city dwellers and nomads creating larger political entities through conquest and consolidation. This cycle, later codified by historian Ibn Khaldun, saw empires like the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans rise to prominence, each leaving a mark on the region’s history and culture.

The Persian Empire, characterized by the difference in its governing style when compared with the more controlling Assyrians, marked a significant era in the Middle World. The Persians adopted a multicultural policy, respected local customs, and prioritized efficient communication and administration. Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion, introduced a dualistic worldview, influencing the region’s religious and cultural landscape.

Over time, the Mediterranean and Middle worlds witnessed shifts in power, with the rise of the Parthians and Sassanids in the Middle World and the transformation of the Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire in the Mediterranean world. The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires dominated their respective regions, with their territories occasionally overlapping, especially in the disputed lands along the Mediterranean shore. This complex political landscape set the stage for the emergence of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, poised between these two great empires.

In the late sixth century, Arabian coastal cities thrived as centers of commerce, engaging in extensive trade with regions known for Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism. Arabs, mostly pagan polytheists, and Jewish tribes, who settled in Arabia following displacement by the Romans, shared cultural similarities and revered common ancestral ties to Abraham. In this milieu, Mohammed, born in the cosmopolitan town of Mecca, emerged as a figure of modest beginnings. Despite his early life challenges as an orphan, he gained a reputation for his diplomatic skills and moral integrity.

At 25, Mohammed entered into a successful and loving marriage with the wealthy widow Khadija; she was a reputed businesswoman in Mecca who was initially Mohammed’s employer. A profound spiritual experience in Mohammed’s later years led him to proclaim a monotheistic message, advocating for moral and social reform. His teachings challenged Mecca’s polytheistic and commercial foundations, sparking opposition from local business leaders and tribal power brokers. His uncle and guardian, Abu Talib, who was a powerful clan leader, supported Mohammed through these challenges. However, after the deaths of Abu Talib and Khadija, Mohammed faced increasing threats, culminating in a plot against his life.

The pivotal moment came when Mohammed and his followers migrated to Medina. This was called the Hijra, and it took place in 622 CE. It marked the inception of the Islamic community and the Islamic calendar. Medina, then torn by tribal conflicts, welcomed Mohammed’s reputation as a fair arbitrator. The Hijra symbolized not just a physical migration but the formation of a new social and religious order, with the Umma (Muslim community) at its core.

In Medina, Mohammed established a covenant promoting peace and mutual defense among its diverse inhabitants. Conflicts ensued with the Quraysh tribe and certain Jewish tribes, leading to battles and significant shifts in the power dynamics of the region. Despite initial setbacks, the Muslims’ determination and unity began to reshape the Arabian Peninsula’s sociopolitical landscape.

Subsequent years saw rapid expansion of Islam across Arabia, marked by Mohammed’s leadership in resolving conflicts and fostering a community bound by shared faith and values. His return to Mecca and the peaceful reclamation of the Ka’ba as a monotheistic worship site signified a major religious and cultural transformation. Mohammed’s final sermon emphasized principles of equality, justice, and the sanctity of life and property, reinforcing the fundamental tenets of Islam.

In 632 CE, after a pilgrimage to Mecca, Mohammed passed away in Medina, leaving behind a transformed Arabian Peninsula and a religious and social legacy that would impact the world. His death prompted a moment of crisis but also cemented his followers’ belief in an immortal and omnipresent God that transcended the life of any individual, even that of the Prophet Mohammed.

In the period following Mohammed’s death, the Muslim community grappled with the task of leadership transition, recognizing the need for a figure who could embody religious grace while also holding the community together. Abu Bakr, Mohammed’s close friend, assumed this role as the first khalifa, marking his tenure with a commitment to the principles established by Mohammed. Despite his unassuming nature, Abu Bakr successfully confronted challenges such as the Apostate Wars, thereby establishing the unity and indivisibility of the Muslim community.

Omar succeeded Abu Bakr and significantly expanded the Islamic empire through strategic military campaigns. Renowned for his stern yet just governance, Omar focused on codifying Islamic practices and laws, emphasizing the community’s egalitarian ethos. His leadership, characterized by an absence of pretension and a dedication to social justice, laid the groundwork for the comprehensive compilation of the Qur’an and the establishment of a legal and administrative system aligned with Islamic values.

This period that saw the rise of khalifas immediately after Mohammed’s death was named the time of the Rashidun—or “Rightly Guided”—Khalifas. It was a foundational era for Islam, witnessing the establishment of key religious, social, and political structures that would notably influence the future of the Islamic world. The leadership during this time not only expanded the territorial boundaries of the empire but also cemented the core principles and practices that would define Islamic civilization. The narratives of the Rashidun Khalifas, documented and passed down through generations, continue to shape the religious, cultural, and political discourse within the Muslim community.