Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America

In the late 18th century, Spain was experiencing difficulties. Previous wars had left the state bankrupt and the rule of the Spanish king, Carlos IV, was calamitous to say the least. This led to more taxes and tighter control in the colonies, which in turn led to negative sentiments, especially among the Creoles (white people born in the Americas) who viewed the Peninsulars (native-born Spanish) as usurpers of their rights. In 1789, the French Revolution toppled the monarchy. The reverberations of the fall were felt throughout Europe and its colonies and would lead directly to revolution in Latin America. In 1807, the French, under Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded the Iberian Peninsula. Carlos IV was imprisoned, and the Portuguese royal court fled to Brazil. The collapse of the Spanish Monarchy sparked revolutionary and loyalist sympathies throughout Spanish America that ultimately questioned the legitimacy of Spanish rule.

The years 1810-1815 witnessed several movements for independence, most notably in the areas of Mexico and in fringe areas like Argentina and Venezuela. In Mexico, Father Miguel Hidalgo and his subsequent replacement (after Hidalgo’s execution), Father José María Morelos, were two of the leading voices for independence. The banner under which many revolutionary leaders led was

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