Beyond Freedom and Dignity

Sigmund Freud, born in 1856 in Moravia, is one of the most well-known psychologists in history. His research, now considered largely obsolete, greatly influenced modern psychology (Thornton, Stephen P. “Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.). Freud is considered a determinist, like Skinner, and believed that behavior was inevitably influenced by childhood beliefs. Skinner notes: “Freud was a determinist—on faith, if not on the evidence” (20). As such, Skinner incorporates Freud in several of his discussions.

References to Freud appear within the first chapter. Skinner uses these to support the idea that behavior is determined and that, while feelings are associated with behavior, they do not control it. Freud’s concept of psychodynamics—the ego, superego, and id; or consciousness, morality, and impulsivity—are discussed in Chapter 4. Skinner makes several references to psychoanalysis, a therapy method engineered by Freud in which a therapist analyzes the impact of unconscious or repressed mental elements on a patient’s behavior. In his references to Freud, Skinner does not elaborate on Freud’s concepts; this is likely because Freud’s work was still prominent at the time his text was written and published, meaning readers were likely familiar with the concepts of psychodynamics and psychoanalysis.

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist who was born in 1849. He originally attended a theological seminary but changed career paths after exploring the works of literary critic D. I. Pisarev and physiologist I. M. Sechenov. Pavlov began his formal study of natural science in the 1870s and later specialized in physiology. After completing his education, Pavlov became the director of the Department of Physiology at Russia’s Institute of Experimental Medicine and taught pharmacology and physiology for a time at the Military Medical Academy. During his time as a professor at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, Pavlov researched digestion, and in the process, discovered conditioned responses. He is best remembered for his experiments in which he conditioned canines to salivate at the sound of a bell by associating the sound of the bell with food. (“Ivan Pavlov—Biographical.” NobelPrize.org, 2024.)

Pavlov is first mentioned in the discussion on reflexes. As with references to Freud, allusions to Pavlov are relatively vague, likely because Skinner assumed that readers would be familiar with Pavlov’s research. However, contextual clues give insight to readers who may not be familiar.

Skinner mentions Pavlov’s conditioning a second time in his discussion on punishment. Russians had utilized Pavlov’s work on conditioning; the government planned to use the principles of conditioning to change the cultural environment and thus encourage certain behaviors. This plan failed, leading to a decline in Pavlov’s popularity, but his reputation was restored after World War II.